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FORMATION OF CASES: NOMINATIVE SINGULAR

241. Masculine and feminine stems not ending in ν, ρ, ς and οντ, add ς.

a. A labial (π, β, φ) + ς becomes ψ (97).

b. A dental (τ, δ, θ) + ς becomes σς (98), which is reduced to ς (107).

c. A palatal (κ, γ, χ) or κτ + ς becomes ξ (97).

(The same changes occur in the dative plural.)

γύ̄ψ vulture γῡπ-ός, Ἄραψ Arab Ἄραβ-ος; κακότης baseness κακότητ-ος, ἐλπίς hope ἐλπίδ-ος, ὄρνῑς bird ὄρνῑθ-ος; φύλαξ guard φύλακ-ος, μάστῐξ scourge μάστῑγ-ος, σάλπιγξ trumpet σάλπιγγ-ος, ὄνυξ nail ὄνυχ-ος, νύξ night νυκτ-ός; ἅλ-ς salt ἁλ-ός, ἰχθύ^̄ς fish ἰχθύ-ος; ἐλέφᾱς elephant ἐλέφαντ-ος.

242. Masculine and feminine stems ending in ν, ρ, and ς reject ς and lengthen a preceding vowel if short (ε to η, ο to ω).

δαίμων divinity δαίμον-ος, χειμών winter χειμῶν-ος, λιμήν harbour λιμέν-ος, Ἕλλην Greek Ἕλλην-ος; ῥήτωρ orator ῥήτορ-ος, ἀήρ air ἀέρ-ος, φώρ thief φωρ-ός, 

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τριήρης trireme (stem τριηρεσ-, 263 b), αἰδώς shame (stem αἰδοσ-, 266). On μήν see 259 end. For stems in ες, nominative -ος, see 263 c.

243. Masculine stems in οντ drop τ (133) and lengthen ο to ω: γέρων old man γέροντ-ος, λέων lion λέοντ-ος.

244. Neuters show the pure stem, from which final τ and other consonants not standing at the end of a word (133) are dropped: ἅρμα chariot ἅρματ-ος, πρᾶγμα thing πρά̄γματ-ος, γάλα milk γάλακτ-ος (133 b).

245. Summary. – ς is added to stems ending in a labial, dental, palatal, and in αντ, εντ, υντ; to some stems in ν (as εἷς one ἑν-ός, μέλᾱς black μέλαν-ος); to stems in ευ, αυ, ου; and to masc. and fem. stems in ι and υ.  ς is not added to most stems ending in ν, nor to those in οντ, ρ, ες, ας, ος, υ (neut.), ω(Ϝ), ο(ι).

accusative singular

246. Masculines and feminines usually add α to stems ending in a consonant; ν to stems ending in ι or υ.

γῦπ-α, ὄνυχ-α, ἐλέφαντ-α, λιμέν-α, ῥήτορ-α, λέοντ-α; πόλι-ν, ἰχθύ^̄-ν, βοῦ-ν from πόλι-ς city, ἰχθύ^̄-ς fish, βοῦ-ς ox, cow. Stems in ευ take α (275).

247. Barytone stems of two syllables ending in ιτ, ιδ, ῑθ usually drop the dental and add ν.

χάρις grace (stem χαριτ-) χάριν, ἔρις strife (ἐριδ-) ἔριν, ὄρνῑς bird (ὀρνῑθ-) ὄρνῑν. So εὔελπις hopeful (εὐελπιδ-) εὔελπιν (292). Oxytones end in α:  ἐλπίδ-α, σφρᾱγῖδα (σφρᾱγί¯ς seal).

a. κλεῖς key (κλειδ-), Old Att. κλῄς, has κλεῖν (late κλεῖδα), acc. pl. κλεῖς (late κλεῖδας).

248. The vocative of masculines and feminines is usually the pure stem.

πόλι (πόλι-ς city), βοῦ (βοῦ-ς ox, cow), Σώκρατες (Σωκράτης). Stems in ιδ and ντ cannot retain final δ and τ (133), hence Ἄρτεμι from Ἄρτεμις (Ἀρτεμιδ-), παῖ from παῖς boy, girl (παιδ-), νεᾶνι from νεᾶνις maiden (νεᾱνιδ-); γέρον from γέρων old man (γεροντ-), γίγαν from γίγᾱς giant (γιγαντ-).

249. The vocative is the same as the nominative:

a. In stems ending in a stop (16) consonant (except those in ιτ, ιδ, ῑθ; ντ in nouns): ὦ φύλαξ watchman. (Αἴᾱς Ajax (Αἰαντ-) is nom. and voc.)

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b. In oxytone stems ending in a liquid and not taking ς to form their nominative (242): ὦ ποιμήν shepherd (ποιμεν-); but ἀνήρ man, πατήρ father have ἄνερ, πάτερ (262). Barytones use the stem as the vocative: δαῖμον, ῥη̈τορ from δαίμων divinity, ῥήτωρ orator.

c. In all participles.

dative dual and plural

250. The dative plural adds -σι to the stem.

Ἄραψ (Ἀραβ-) Ἄραψι, μάστῐξ (μαστῑγ-) μάστιξι, φύλαξ (φυλακ-) φύλαξι, σῶμα (σωματ-) σώμασι (98), ἐλπίς (ἐλπιδ-) ἐλπίσι (98), ὄρνῑς (ὀρνῑθ-) ὄρνῑσι (98), ἐλέφᾱς (ἐλεφαντ-) ἐλέφᾱσι, θήρ (θηρ-) θηρσί.

a. Stems in ντ drop ντ and lengthen the preceding vowel (100): λέων (λεοντ-) λέουσι, γίγᾱς (γιγαντ-) γίγᾱσι.

b. Stems in ν drop ν without lengthening the preceding vowel (if short):  δαίμων (δαιμον-) δαίμοσι, ποιμήν (ποιμεν-) ποιμέσι, φρήν mind (φρεν-) φρεσί.

N. – Strictly ν is not dropped, but since the stem of the dat. pl. is weak in form (253 a) the ν stood originally between two consonants and should become α (35 b). Thus, φρασί in Pindar is for φρṇσι. Attic φρεσί borrows its ε from φρένες, φρενῶν, etc.  So ποιμέσι, for ποιμασι from ποιμṇσι, because of ποιμένες, etc.

c. ρς is not changed to ρρ (79 a).

251. a. The ending -ας is produced by adding νς to the stem (ν becoming α between two consonants by 35 b). Thus φύλακ-ας is from φυλακ-ṇς. This -ας may be added even to ι and υ stems: Hom. πόλι-ας, ἰχθύ-ας, Hdt. πήχε-ας. Hom. πόλῑς is from πόλι-νς (Cretan).

b. The nominative pl. masc. or fem. is sometimes used instead of the accusative pl.: τριήρεις 264, πόλεις and πήχεις 268.

accent, stem formation, quantity, gender

252. Accent. – Stems of one syllable accent the case ending in the genitive and dative of all numbers; and -ων and -οιν take the circumflex accent. Thus, φλέψ vein, φλεβ-ός, φλεβ-ῶν; θήρ wild beast, θηρ-ός, θηρ-οῖν, θηρ-ῶν; θρίξ hair, τριχ-ός, τριχ-ῶν.

a. Exceptions. The ending of the gen. dual and pl. is not accented in the case of ὁ, ἡ παῖς boy, girl, ὁ δμώς slave, ὁ θώς jackal, ὁ Τρώς Trojan, ἡ δᾴς torch,

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b. A trisyllabic form, if contracted, does not show the accent on the case ending:  ἦρ-ος for ἔαρ-ος, ἦρ-ι for ἔαρ-ι, from τὸ ἔαρ spring.

253.  Variation of Stem Formation. – Many words of the third declension show traces of an original variation of stem that is due to the influence of a shifting accent which is seen in some of the cognate languages.  In Greek this variation has often been obscured by the analogy of other forms. Thus πατέρων, in comparison with Hom. πατρῶν, Lat. patrum, gets its ε from πατέρες.

a. Variation of stem is seen in ων, ον (259); ηρ, ερ, ρα (262); ης, εσ- (264); in stems in ι, ει (270); υ, ευ (270); ευ, ηυ (278); οι, ω (279), etc. Words in ων, ην show a middle form ον, εν, and a weak form in ν (250 N.).

b. Several words ending in ρ show a parallel stem in τ; thus, ὕδωρ water ὕδατ-ος, ἧπαρ liver ἥπατ-ος, φρέᾱρ tank φρέᾱτ-ος (but poet. δάμᾱρ wife δάμαρτ-ος). The reason for this change is uncertain, but ατ is derived from ντ after a consonant (35 b):  ὑδντος, ἡπντος, cp. Lat. jecinoris, nom. jecur. ἧπαρ is probably derived from ἡπαρτ (133).

c. -ατος was transferred from such genitives as ὀνόματος, ἥπατος to other neuter words:  γόνατος from γόνυ knee, instead of γονϜ-ος, whence Hom. γουνός. φῶς light, for φάος (stem φαεσ-), has taken on the τ inflection (φωτ-ός, etc.).

d. Neuter stems in -ες show -ος in the nominative. Cp. ἔτος year (stem ἐτεσ-) with Lat. vetus, veter-is (for vetes-is).

254.  Variation of Quantity. –a. In poetry the quantity of ι in words in -ις may differ from that of prose; as in tragedy ὄρνῐς bird, κόνῑς dust, ὄφῑς serpent (in prose ὄρνῑς, κόνῐς, ὄφῐς); so in Pind. ἰχθῠ́ς (prose ἰχθύ̄ς) fish.

b. κῆρῠξ herald, Φοῖνῐξ Phoenician, μάστῐξ whip have long υ and ι in the oblique cases except the dat. pl. (κήρῡκος, Φοίνῑκι, μάστῑγα, etc.). ἀλώπηξ fox has ε in the gen. ἀλώπεκος, etc., by analogy to such words as ποιμήν, ποιμένος (ἀλωπήκων occurs in Ionic). πῦρ fire has πῠρός, πῠρί, etc. (285, 25).

255.  Gender. – The gender of substantives of the third declension is frequently known by the last letters of the stem.

1. Masculine are stems ending in

a. ντ:  ὀδούς tooth (ὀδοντ-), δράκων serpent (δρακοντ-).

b. ητ, ωτ:  πένης day-labourer (πενητ-), γέλως laughter (γελωτ-).

Exceptions. Stems in -τητ (2, b):  ἡ ἐσθής dress (ἐσθητ-), τὸ φῶς light (φωτ-).

c. ν:  λειμών meadow (λειμον-).

Exceptions.  Fem.:  stems in γον, δον (2, a), and φρήν mind (φρεν-), ἴ¯ς strength (ἰ¯ν-), ῥί¯ς nose (ῥῑν-), ἀκτί¯ς ray (ἀκτῑν-), γλωχί¯ς arrow-point (γλωχῑν-), ὠδί¯ς birth-pang (ὠδῑν-), εἰκών image (εἰκον-), ἠϊών shore (ἠϊον-), χθών earth (χθόν-), χιών snow (χιον-), ἀλκυών halcyon (ἀλκυον-), etc., ὁ, ἡ χήν goose (χην-).

d. ρ:  θήρ wild beast (θηρ-), φώρ thief (φωρ-).

Exceptions. Fem.:  χείρ hand (χερ-), κήρ fate (κηρ-), γαστήρ belly (γαστερ-); neut.: stems in αρ (3, a), πῦρ fire (πυρ-), and the indeclinable πέλωρ monster, τέκμωρ (Hom.) token, etc.

e. ευ:  γονεύς parent, φονεύς murderer.

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2. Feminine are stems ending in

a. γον, δον: σταγών drop (σταγον-), χελῑδών swallow (χελῑδον-).

b. τητ, δ, θ: κακότης baseness (κακοτητ-), ἔρις strife (ἐριδ-), ἐλπίς hope (ἐλπιδ-).

Exceptions. Masc.:  πούς foot (ποδ-), ὁ, ἡ ὄρνῑς bird (ὀρνῑθ-).

c. ι, υ with nom. in -ις, -υς:  πόλι-ς city, ἰσχύ^̄-ς strength.

Exceptions. Masc.:  ὄφι-ς serpent, ἔχι-ς viper, ὄρχι-ς testicle; βότρυ-ς cluster of grapes, ἰχθύ^̄-ς fish, μῦ-ς mouse, νέκυ-ς corpse, στάχυ-ς ear of corn, πέλεκυ-ς axe, πῆχυ-ς fore-arm; and ὁ, ἡ σῦ-ς or ὗ-ς swine.

d. οι:  ἠχώ echo, πειθώ pèrsuasion.

3. Neuter are stems ending in

a. ατ, αρ: πρᾶγμα thing (πρᾱγματ-), νέκταρ nectar (νεκταρ-). But ὁ ψά̄ρ starling.

b. ας, ες (with nom. in -ος): κρέας flesh (κρεασ-), γενος race (γενεσ-).

c. ι, υ with nom. in -ι, -υ: σίνᾱπι mustard, ἄστυ city.

N. – No stem ending in π, β, φ or κ, γ, χ is neuter.